INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
I. Background
Both developed and developing countries are well aware of the quality crisis within education and its development consequences. Poor education quality, therefore, is detrimental to poverty reduction efforts, social equity and inclusion, social coherence and political stability. It stands in the way of attaining poverty reduction related to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) at an individual, national, regional and global level. At the same time, it presents obstacles to attaining Education for All (EFA) goals, each of which concerns education quality; and particularly goals 2, 5, and 6. Quality, within the MDG and EFA framework, is integrally interwoven with the notion of equity which, however it is defined, is the cornerstone of the notions of inclusiveness. In considering educational and national development, globalisation is well recognised as a phenomenon that can neither be denied nor ignored. It offers great possibilities and poses severe risks at the same time. Positively, it provides opportunities for nations to share ideas and practices about common problems of quality and equity in education. Education and training, recognised as the vehicle to transform the human and physical environment and lead to sustainable development, need to be transformed within themselves in the first place. Thus, it calls for attention and attempts to readdress current situations, challenges, and trends in the two pillars of education quality and equity in the context of globalisation.
Addressing the above-mentioned educational issues, the 2011 Dujiangyan International Forum was held on August 7-8, 2011, in Chengdu, China. It was co-sponsored by the Chinese National Commission for UNESCO, Chengdu Municipal Government and Beijing Normal University; and co-organized by UNESCO International Research and Training Centre for Rural Education (INRULED), Chengdu Education Bureau, International Institute of Education (IIE), Stockholm University, Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, Dujiangyan Municipal Government and Chengdu University.
II. Themes
The 2011 Dujiangyan International Forum identified three overarching themes to be developed by participants. These themes were Equity, Quality and Internationalisation of Education. Under this umbrella, a number of sub-themes were introduced to focus the Forum on the current international debate concerning the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Education for All (EFA) within the broad context of balanced rural transformation in the broadest sense to encompass sustainable practices within the local and global environment. The sub-themes were identified as Promoting Balanced Development of Education in Rural and Urban Areas; Education and Training for Rural Transformation; Enhancing the Level of Internationalization of Education.
III. Aim and Expected Outcomes
The overarching aim of the Forum was to clarify the crucial issues concerning the use of education and training to realize the goal of balanced sustainable development in rural and urban areas. The focus of the Forum is on the harmonious development of education and training within the context of local, regional, national and global challenges of the 21st century. Balanced sustainable rural transformation is the key concept within these challenges.
The expected outcomes of the Forum were 1) to share experiences and good practices on narrowing the urban-rural divide that put the lives of millions of people in jeopardy and limits their prospects for the future, balancing educational equity and quality, and promoting the internationalisation of education through partnerships; 2) to provide empirical evidence for stakeholders and clarify their roles and responsibilities for achieving balanced sustainable development; 3) to reach a consensus on immediate joint actions for empowering rural communities, especially the rural poor, for enhancing quality and promoting equity of education, and for inclusive sustainable development of a nation and the world at large.
IV. Participants
The Forum was attended by 120 local and international participants, including educational specialists, academics and policy makers from governments, international organizations, research institutes, universities and schools in different countries, especially in developing countries.
V. Chapter Summaries
The thirty chapters of the book have been selected and organised within the context of the 2011 Dujiangyan International Forum according to three thematic sections, which reflect the challenges and opportunities to learn from in-depth case studies and research. The three sections are: Part One: The Equity Challenge: The Role and Importance of Inclusive Education; Part Two: The Quality Challenge: The Need for Skills Development, Vocational Education and Training; Part Three: The Challenge for Internationalisation: Case Studies and Lessons Learned.
In Chapter One, Chinapah acknowledges the paradigm shift of policy discourse in regard to what constitutes as educational quality. He questions, who does quality benefit and for whose interest, problematizing the relationship between quality and equity. Chinapah argues for the refocus of Education of Quality for All (EQFA) on its intent purpose of learner, learning and teacher centred process. Using evidence from surveys and previous research to reinforce the importance of addressing the teaching-learning process. Chinapah further recommends that EQFA should not be restricted to formal education alone, but rather have a holistic perspective and approach. Chinapah highlights the importance of all partners (national, regional and international) to work together towards strengthening the EQFA perspective based on learner-centred pedagogy, in order to meet the needs of basic and lifelong learning.
Rural communities’ learning needs have increasingly diversified, becoming more complex and demand driven. Ahmed in Chapter Two emphasizes the need for an agenda for action, stating that Education for Rural Transformation (ERT) proposed an outline for such critical needs of the overarching Education for All (EFA) issues: access and equity, quality and relevance, and efficiency and accountability. Having objectively measured the progress in the last decade, Ahmed concludes that the issues raised a decade earlier remain critical and un-amended, while the intensity and extent of poverty has dramatically increased.
Chapter Three addresses the concern for the quality of basic education and its need to match employment sector needs, to have deeper meaning and relevance to daily lives, and to encompass new technologies. Qutub Khan observes primary schools in relation to the question of quality and proposes an integrated model. Observing key components of this model, Khan concludes that although there is a variety of ways to improve the quality of basic education, those that are crucial to the success of implementation are: more active involvement of local stakeholders in development of curriculum in order to increase both relevance and responsiveness to the needs of children in the varying socio-economic contexts, and the need for the corresponding production of relevant teaching and instructional materials with the improved usage of child to child learning opportunities.
Vollmann, in Chapter Four, states the aim to reduce the gap of knowledge between the conception of socio-economic realities and the declared educational goals and strategies. Examining four countries: India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh, Vollmann uses select human development data to remark on forms of poverty and forms of basic education. Observing key indicators such as fertility, family planning and contraception in comparison to literacy and the weak enrolment in Technological and Vocational Education Training (TVET), Vollmann concludes that new and innovative policies need to be developed based on the unique socio-cultural barriers in South Asian Societies.
Rural development and poverty reduction remain a fundamental challenge in light of increasing globalisation and population growth, especially for countries like China and other developing nations. In Chapter Five, Yonggong Liu, Wei Wu and Pengfei Ning review the present situation and challenges faced by rural education and the skill development of farmers. The authors present the case of farmers’ education/training in rural transformation as an integral part of inclusive development.
Chapter Six relays a detailed account of the formulation of a management and alliance of schools to contribute to a balanced joined development and progress of education. Yu Lei attributes one of the keys to the success of this chain of schools to the equal development of teachers from both rural and urban areas. Teachers and management shared goals and training modules which increased the quality of instruction and shared resources.
Ling Ke in Chapter Seven investigates and surveys the education status of out of school children in 165 villages in Pixian County. The results of the study recognized new educational resources available to rural communities. By focusing the rural community around the vitality of school education, it has expanded the space of children’s growth to comprise of their families, partners, neighbours and schools. This in turn has increased children’s love and loyalty to their community, there by successfully reversing the shift of "education for departure from the countryside" into "education of agricultural service."
In light of the diverse rural contexts, Education for Rural Transformation (ERT) requires the integration of formal, non-formal and informal education through a multi-sectoral educational approach that administers to the specific learning needs for skills and capacity development. In Chapter Eight, Wen Zhang observes the Community Learning Centre (CLC), in Yunnan province. The CLCs compose of four pillars: a training centre, a library, a development centre and a cultural activity centre, reflecting the context of the community. Participatory learning and more relevant linkage between schools and the community result in beneficial results on aspects refarding gender, age and the rural population. Zhang concludes that education must be flexible to effectively spur rural transformation.
Chapter Nine discusses the dichotomy of rural and urban social structures in Chinese society. Qiang Wang inspects the national plan for the training of rural workers put forth by the national government from 1993-2010. Wang examines the case study of the Sunshine Program that provides pre-service training for surplus labourers to aid their transfer to non-agricultural industries. Wang also inspects the contributions of non-government organizations. Three models of rural human development are introduced: process-focused training, skills-focused training and rights-focused training. Wang also examines the ways of training as well including on-the-job learning and for self-development learning. Finally, Wang looks at challenges rural human resources are facing with the conclusion that improving the human resource development strategies can directly upgrade migrants with knowledge and skills they needed for their better employment and living quality. Wang also acknowledges that this improvement of work and life needs to improve the understanding and appreciation between rural and urban populations.
The first chapter of Section Two focuses on quality and the needs of skill development, technical and vocational education and training, Vinayagum Chinapah makes a convincing argument for a reevaluation of present educational policies and priorities. In the indepth on going comparative study of ERT in China and India, Chapter Ten highlights many issues raised from the International Symposium on ERT hosted by the Institute of International Education (IIE), Stockholm University. Several of these issues include ICT / E- learning, the importance of teachers, integrated development and of educational services, exploration of vocational and skill development to name a few. Several challenges and opportunities are also raised from the symposium and these lead into Chinapah’s charge for the Dujiangyan International Forum to further contribute and build upon what has already been learnt, to re-examine the educational practices and the role of education in rural contexts, through fresh perspectives in order for education practices to effectively aid in sustainable rural transformation.
Pushpanadham and Panigrahi in Chapter Eleven address the rationale for skill development and innovative programmes introduced as a result by the Indian Government. The authors highlight the importance of lifelong learning, youth and women empowerment and the impact on economic sustainability. Pushpanadham and Panigrahi also discuss the challenges specifically in regards to the Indian context. In Chapter Twelve, Shaw examines the pivotal nature of principal leadership and management in ensuring the effectiveness of schools. Focusing on Indonesia’s recent changes in education policy effect on principal’s professional development, a programme of principal selection, training and professional development was initiated using a five-level approach for development. Competency Based Training focused on workplace competency and workplace learning is at the centre of the programme. The preliminary results are reported as successful with the implications of further development in educational practices, administration and the transformation of Indonesian basic education.
Yuhong Du, Yongmei Hu and Ke Lu, in Chapter Thirteen, disclose the impact of project intervention on student learning achievements in primary school in the Sichuan, Gansu and Yunnan provinces and the Ningxia Hui and Guangxi Zhuang autonomous regions in China. Their impact assessment of the ‘Basic Education in Western Areas Project’ or BEWAP observed the key indicators of inputs and outputs and the specific project contributions. BEWAP was intended to increase the access and completion of good-quality basic education through the intervention of teacher training and school facilities. The results were found that those students attending BEWAP project schools had a significant improvement in learning achievement, especially for girls, ethnic minorities and other disadvantaged students.
In Chapter Fourteen, Zhaoyu Jia describes the implementation and monitoring of six projects employed in the Shuangliu County of China. The projects were intended to optimize school facilities and talents in order to promote education quality and close the gap between urban and rural areas. The monitoring system was established to ensure basic rights and the equal distributions of education resources was both balanced and sustainable. Jia found that the projects to be successful and the monitoring feedback and act itself useful for the administration of education development. The imbalance between urban-rural schools and amongst individual schools was greatly reduced and coordination was promoted.
Likewise in the Wuhou District, Chengdu Municipality, China, monitoring of inter-school equilibrium and balanced development was also undertaken. In Chapter Fifteen, Fumin Lei describes the decision-making process to increase equality in Wuhou District. Financial Investment, distribution of material and human resources, and the improvement of management were as a result, distributed more effectively and equally.
Martha Mweneni Kashea in Chapter Sixteen, observes Namibia and explores the debates of skill development, the current state of skills in Namibia and the lessons that could be learned from experiences in China. Concluding that immediate intervention is required in Namibia, Kashea’s study recommends that skill development be included into all levels of education including early childhood development and basic education in order to ensure effective skill development and reduce the unnecessary remedial education cost.
Chapter Seventeen looks at the role of higher agriculture vocational education in rural transformation in China. Jiaying Zhang explores the challenges faced by China’s rural society and observes economic growth and the resulting increase of farmers’ incomes, intergenerational mobility, modes of higher vocational institutes and the improved education of the rural population through various training programmes.
Zhiyong Qi introduces the project of “Rural Community Learning Centres for Poverty Alleviation” that started in 1997 in the Gansu, Yunnan provinces and the Guangxi Qi Autonomous Region of China in Chapter Eighteen. The community Learning centres promoted the development of reaching the educated un-reached and improved the quality of the local community environment. Through case study examples, Qi observes that although the community centres are making incremental progress, the overall functions could be improved with the increase of the number of personnel training, previous successes should be reviewed, summarized and distributed, theoretical research should be reinforced and implemented, and further resources need to be inputted to meet the growing needs.
Chapter Nineteen looks at the “Survey of Chinese children and teenagers’ psychological development characteristics” project from the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology China. Qi Dong argues that although China has the largest number of children and teenagers in the world, research in the psychological development has not yet been accomplished. The paper emphasizes that in order for China to formulate a valid scientific evaluation of the students’ psychological development, standard tools, representative modules and databases are needed. Dong reveals that the survey provided a framework and method for improving the quality of compulsory education.
Kalimili Sujatha investigates the vocational education in India in Chapter Twenty. Examining institutions and several education indicators such as drop outs and completion rates, Sujatha juxtaposes government policies and the expansion of outreach to troubled areas. Observing in comparison several states to all of India, the author focuses on the rural and urban divide. Concluding the report with best practices for rural development, Sujatha gives several case studies including: Community Polytechnics, Self-Employment Training Institute, the Mahila Samkhya Programme for Women Empowerment, and Jan Shikshan Sansthans, providing vocational training to non- and neo-literate individuals.
In Chapter Twenty One, Li Wen describes Yandaojie Primary School Education Chain as a successful example of balanced development between the rural and urban schools in China. Wen explains the balanced development was due to the integration of schools, modernizing the schools by working effectively with information technology, optimizing teacher effectiveness through exchanges of both urban and rural, and experienced and newer teachers, and through the employment of projects such as collaborative curriculum building.
Gerhard Kutsch in Chapter Twenty Two discusses what is meant by the term “quality of education” and points out similarities and differences in regards to quantity. Observing the “quality content for education” Kutsch stresses that the perception of quality is dependent on a society and global contexts and therefore emphasizes that caution is needed when working with statistics in relation to quality. The deliverance of quality education posits new practical challenges addressing relevance, equity in access and outcome and individual rights. Kustch concludes that there is a need to work internationally but in order to do so effectively the basic definition of “high quality” must be agreed upon.
The final section on the challenge for internationalization, Part Three, begins with Abhimayu Singh’s paper on how China prepares students for the 21st century and an increasingly globalized society in Chapter Twenty Three. Reviewing China’s educational policies and programmes Singh observes how China has increased both international cooperation and exchange and international competitiveness of China’s education. Singh concludes in order for China to continue to making strives to lead globally in education, several things need to occur including: continued modernization and integration of emerging technologies, curriculum needs to be responsive to the market and society, the knowledge gap of global subjects needs to be reduced, memory-based teaching methods need to be replaced with interactive and innovative methods and, international experiences and linguistic competence needs to be further developed.
Selected inclusive education experiences from selected Sub-Saharan African countries are examined in Chapter Twenty Four. Awol Endris defines inclusive education as considering all learners being equally capable of success and valuing the contribution of each individual in the education process. Endris presents the case studies of Botswana, South Africa, Ethiopia, Kenya, Ghana and Nigeria concluding that inclusive education has still often been misunderstood as only catering to disabled students, that there are a lot of challenges in its implementation, that a multi-sectored approach is necessary for success and that the education sector is only one piece although important, in the transformation of rural societies.
Joel Jonathan Kayombo looks at the initiatives of Education for All in Tanzania in Chapter Twenty Five. Contextualizing the topic, Kayombo presents both the achievements and remaining challenges for Tanzania from an equity perspective. Concluding with the acknowledgement that the four factors of institutional, economic, socio-cultural and motivation barriers constrain the majority of Tanzanians, Kayombo questions if equity in education is truly possible considering the vast uncontrollable inequities outside of the school.
In Chapter Twenty Six, Adetu Kefyalew Waktole analyses origins, structures and challenges of African Higher Education accreditation systems. Concluding that the accreditation systems do not have the capacity to improve or monitor quality due to the lack of self-governance and the dependence on international and government financial assistance. This failure to accurately monitor HEI reflects the quality and competitiveness of African Higher Education Institutions in the knowledge driven, globalized economy.
Mzingisi Gqwede examines the case of Namibia’s curriculum standards for quality-based education. Observing the standards, structure and evaluation in Chapter Twenty Seven, Gqwede notes the advantages and challenges of the curriculum’s implementation. Concluding that the curriculum is merely a statement of intent, that in order to be successful, the competency and commitment of the teachers are crucial.
Chapter Twenty Eight gives a personal perspective on internationalization of education from Greg Rudd. Giving several examples from various schools in Australia, Rudd describes an international context that requires educators to be flexible and be ready to discuss and teach both the positives and negatives of life.
Garry de la Pomerai in Chapter Twenty Nine looks at the role of Disaster Risk Reduction in the context of Education for Rural Transformation, quality and sustainable development. Pomerai discusses the realistic strategies for Disaster Reduction which he argues is in the hands of political willingness. The largest challenge Pomerai concludes, is the potential erosion of the rural physical environment and social deterioration of the rural society.
Seunghwan Lee revisits Education for International Understanding (EIU) in the current context of the widening economic gaps, international financial crisis, increasing conflicts between people and various groups and countries. Chapter Thirty concludes with Lee argues that more than ever before EIU’s key elements are needed: respecting and building a culture of peace; universal values of human rights and environmental ethics and solving conflicts in a peaceful and non-violent manner.
Chapter Thirty One Jian Tian takes a closer scrutiny of Shishi High School in Chengdu of Sichuan Province in China, the first institution of the country to be sponsored by local authorities. Shishi High School has attempted to sustain not only China’s education traditions, but also bridging Chinese-foreign cultures through a global perspective. Tian explains that the High School has been very successful with the international cooperation from countries around the world on all continents, except for Africa. The new domestic and international training modes has allowed for two-way cultural exchanges amongst teachers and students creating not only an internationalized school but a society of understanding and acceptance.